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The Basics
- What is cervical cancer?
- What are the different types of cervical cancer?
- What causes cervical cancer?
- Cervical cancer and women: the statistics
- How does cervical cancer affect women?
Diagnosis and Treatment
Empower Yourself
Cervical Cancer
Discuss all medical advice, diagnosis, and treatment with your healthcare provider.
Cervical Cancer Resources
The Basics
What is cervical cancer?
To understand cervical cancer, it is helpful to break it down into parts. First, we will explain what cancer is. Then we will explain the function of the cervix. Cervical cancer is cancer of the cervix.
Cancer
Cancer begins in the cells. In the normal process of cell division, new cells form as the body needs them and old cells die when they are no longer necessary. Sometimes, however, new cells grow when the body has no need for them, or old cells do not die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor.
There are two different kinds of tumors: benign and malignant.
Benign tumors:
- Generally, benign tumors can be removed, and they usually do not grow back.
- Polyps, cysts, and genital warts are types of benign growths on the cervix.
- Benign tumors are rarely life-threatening.
Malignant tumors:
- Malignant tumors are generally more serious than benign tumors. They may be life-threatening.
- Malignant tumors often can be removed, but sometimes they grow back.
- Cells from malignant tumors can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs.
- Cells from malignant tumors can spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by entering the bloodstream. These cells invade other organs and form new tumors that damage these organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis.
Cervix
The cervix is the narrow, lower part of a woman's uterus. It connects the uterus to the vagina. The cervical canal is the passageway through which blood flows during menstruation. The cervix also produces mucus, which helps sperm travel to the uterus from the vagina. During pregnancy, the cervix is tightly closed to help keep the fetus securely inside the uterus. During the birthing process, the cervix dilates, or opens, to allow the baby to exit through the vagina.
Symptoms of cervical cancer:
- It is very important to get regular check-ups by your gynecologist, since most people have no symptoms during the early stages of cervical cancer. By getting regular Pap smear tests, your healthcare professional will be able to identify cancerous cells before you feel any symptoms, which makes the cancer easier to treat. Sometimes, people can experience symptoms of cervical cancer, as listed below:
- Abnormal vaginal bleeding
- Bleeding that occurs between regular menstrual periods
- Bleeding after sexual intercourse, douching, or a pelvic exam
- Menstrual periods that last longer and are heavier than before
- Bleeding after menopause
- Pelvic pain
- Pain during sexual intercourse
What are the different types of cervical cancer?
If your healthcare professional finds that you have signs of cervical cancer, he/she will do a thorough exam, and perform lab tests to determine to which stage the disease has progressed.
Stage I: This means that cancerous cells have grown into your cervix. They have not spread elsewhere. Stage I is further divided into these groups.
- Stage IA1. A clinician cannot see this cancer without a microscope. It is less than 3 mm deep and less than 7 mm wide.
- Stage IA2. A clinician cannot see this cancer without a microscope. It is between 3 mm and 5 mm deep but still less than 7 mm wide.
- Stage IB1. A clinician can see this cancer with the naked eye. It is no bigger than 4 cm in size.
- Stage IB2. A clinician can see this cancer with the naked eye. It is larger than 4 cm in size.
- Stage IIA. This stage of cancer extends to your upper vagina. It has not spread into the tissues deeper than the vagina.
- Stage IIB. This stage of cancer has spread to the tissues surrounding your vagina and cervix but not yet to the wall of the pelvis.
- Stage IIIA. This stage of cancer has spread to the lower third of your vagina. It has not spread to the wall of your pelvis.
- Stage IIIB. This stage of cancer has spread to the soft tissues surrounding your vagina and cervix to the wall of the pelvis.
- Stage IVA. This stage of cancer has spread to nearby organs, such as your bladder or rectum.
- Stage IVB. This stage of cancer has spread to distant organs, such as your lungs.
*This system of stages was developed by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics.
There are also different types of cervical cancers:
- About 80% to 90% are squamous cell carcinomas.
- The other 10% to 20% are adenocarcinomas.
- If the cancer has features of both types it is called mixed carcinoma. If you have cervical cancer, you should ask your healthcare professional to explain exactly what type of cancer you have.
What causes cervical cancer?
It is well known that the human papilloma viruses are associated with cervical cancer. However, there may be other contributing factors that cause cervical cancer.
- Human papillomaviruses (HPVs): HPV infection is the principal risk factor for cervical cancer. HPV is a group of viruses that can infect the cervix. These infections are very common. The HPV virus can be passed from person to person through sexual contact. Most adults have been infected with HPV at some time in their lives. Some types of HPV can cause changes to cells in the cervix. These changes can lead to genital warts, cancer, or other problems. Clinicians check for changes in your cells that indicate HPV even if there are no warts or other symptoms.
- Lack of regular check-ups: Cervical cancer is more common among women who do not get regular Pap smears. The Pap smear helps clinicians find precancerous cells. Treating precancerous cervical changes often prevents cancer.
- Weakened immune system (the body's natural defense system): Women with conditions that weaken the immune system, such as HIV (the virus that causes AIDS) infection or who take drugs that suppress the immune system have a higher risk of getting cervical cancer. If you are infected with HIV, you should see your healthcare professional regularly for Pap tests.
- Sexual history: Women who have had sexual partners have a higher risk of developing cervical cancer. Also, a woman who has sex with a man who has had many sexual partners may be at higher risk of developing cervical cancer, as they have a higher chance of being exposed to HPV. In both cases, the risk of developing cervical cancer is higher because the woman is more likely to be exposed to the HPV infection.
- Smoking cigarettes: Women with an HPV infection who smoke cigarettes have a higher risk of cervical cancer than women with HPV infection who do not smoke.
Cervical cancer and women: the statistics
- The American Cancer Society estimates that about 11,150 cases of invasive cervical cancer will be diagnosed in the United States in 2007.
- About 3670 women are predicted to die from cervical cancer in the US in 2007.
- Between 1955 and 1992, the number of American women who died from cervical cancer annually dropped by 74%.
- The death rate from cervical cancer continues to decline by about 4% every year.
- Half of women diagnosed with cervical cancer are between the ages 35 and 55.
- About 20% of women with cervical cancer are diagnosed when they are over 65.
- Cervical cancer occurs most often in Latina women. More than twice as many Latinas are diagnosed annually than Caucasian women.
- African-American women develop cervical cancer about 50% more often than Caucasian women.
- The 5-year relative survival rate for Stage 1 cervical cancer is 92%.
- The 5-year survival rate of all stages combined is about 72%.
- HPV has been found in 99% of cervical cancer biopsy specimens worldwide.
How does cervical cancer affect women?
Menstruation:
Women with cervical cancer may experience heavier and longer-lasting periods. They also may experience bleeding in between regular periods.
Birth control:
There is some medical evidence that women who have using oral contraception for more than 5 years are more likely to develop certain cervical cancer types. This may be partially due to the fact that women who use oral contraception as a method of birth control are less likely to use latex condoms, which help prevent the transmission of HPV. HPV is the number one risk factor for cervical cancer. There is also some evidence to suggest that oral contraceptives can weaken the immune system to a certain extent.
Pregnancy:
A small number of new cases of cervical cancers are discovered in pregnant women. If the cancer is at a very early stage, you will probably be able to carry the baby to term. Soon after the delivery, you and your healthcare professional will find the best treatment for you.
If the cancer is in a more developed stage, you may decide to terminate the pregnancy.
Diagnosis and Treatment
Diagnosis
Whether or not you are experiencing symptoms of cervical cancer, you should get a routine screening. This way, if there are any abnormal cells, your healthcare professional will be able to treat you before they become cancerous. One way to reduce your risk of cervical cancer is to have regular Pap smear tests. A Pap test (sometimes called Pap smear or cervical smear) is a simple test used to look at cervical cells. It is not painful in most women, and is done during a routine pelvic exam. Women should have a Pap test at least once every 3 years after they become sexually active or after the age of 21, whichever comes first. There are a few things that you need to do before a Pap test to make sure that your cells are not affected:
- Do not douche for 48 hours before the test.
- Do not have sexual intercourse for 48 hours before the test.
- Do not use vaginal medicines (except as directed by a clinician) or birth control foams, creams, or jellies for 48 hours before the test.
If a woman has results from her Pap test that indicate she may be at risk for cervical cancer, the clinician will suggest the next steps to complete a diagnosis.
Colposcopy: During this test, the clinician uses an instrument called a colposcope to look at the cervix. A colposcope is a lighted magnifying instrument used to look closely the the cervix and vagina.
Biopsy: Your healthcare professional may want to take a small sample of the cervical tissues. This is known as a biopsy. This procedure usually requires local numbing medicine.
- Punch biopsy: The clinician uses a sharp, hollow device to pinch off samples of cervical tissue.
- LEEP: The clinician uses an electric wire loop to slice off a thin, round piece of tissue.
- Endocervical curettage: The clinician uses a curette (a small, spoon-shaped instrument) to scrape a small sample of tissue from the cervix.
- Conization: The clinician removes a cone-shaped sample of tissue. This allows the pathologist to see if abnormal cells are in the tissue beneath the surface. Also called a cone biopsy, this procedure may be used to remove precancerous tissue as well as for diagnosis purposes.
Vaccination and treatment
The HPV vaccine:
In 2006, the FDA authorized the administration of the HPV vaccine for girls/women ages 9 to 26 years old. The vaccine is given through a series of three shots over the course of 6 months, and is thought to protect women against HPV, which is present in over 99% of cervical cancer patients.
Treating cervical cancer:
Learning that you have cancer can feel earth-shattering and scary. You may not be able to process it immediately. And yet, once you are diagnosed, decisions need to be made. Considering what kind of treatment is right for you is at the forefront of these decisions. Here are a few questions that you may want to ask your healthcare professional to help you address concerns you may have:
- What is the stage of my disease? Has the cancer spread? If so, to where?
- What are my treatment choices? Which do you recommend for me? Will I have more than one kind of treatment?
- What are the expected benefits of each kind of treatment?
- What are the risks and possible side effects of each treatment? What can we do to control my side effects?
- How will treatment affect my normal activities?
- What can I do to take care of myself during treatment?
- How long will treatment last?
- Will I have to stay in the hospital?
- What is the treatment likely to cost? Does my insurance cover this treatment?
- How often should I have checkups?
- Would a clinical trial (research study) be appropriate for me?
There are three primary forms of treatment for cervical cancer: surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. These treatments are either used independently or in combination.
Surgery: Most women with early stages of cervical cancer will undergo a surgical procedure to remove cancerous tissue. Some women may need a hysterectomy.
Radiation: Radiation uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. It only affects cells in the treated area. Women may have radiation alone, or in combination with surgery or chemotherapy. Clinicians use two different methods of radiation therapy to treat cervical cancer:
- External radiation: A large machine emits radiation into the area of concern. This procedure is usually done at a clinic, or can be done on an outpatient basis at the hospital. In this case, a woman would receive receives external radiation 5 days a week for several weeks.
- Internal radiation (intracavitary radiation): Thin tubes (also called implants) containing a radioactive substance are inserted into the vagina and left there for a few hours or up to 3 days. In this case, one may stay in the hospital during that time. To protect others from the radiation, she may not be able to have visitors or may have visitors for only a short period of time while the tubes are in place. Once the tubes are removed, no radioactivity is left in her body. Internal radiation may be repeated two or more times over several weeks.
Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy uses anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells. The drug is administered through the bloodstream, and it affects cells all over the body. This is called systemic therapy. Usually, for cervical cancer, chemotherapy is combined with radiation. If the cancer has spread to distant organs, chemotherapy may be used exclusively. Women usually receive this treatment as outpatients at a hospital.
Empower Yourself
Dealing with cervical cancer
Learning that you have cervical cancer can make you feel scared and alone. It’s important to realize that there are many other women out there who know what you are going through. By talking to a friend, a counselor, or a cancer survivor, you can get the support you need. There are support groups all over the country that can help you get through this difficult time. Call 800-4-CANCER to find a support group near you.
There are also certain things you can do to help minimize the side effects of your treatment, which can be painful. Acupuncture, massage therapy, herbal products, vitamins or special diets, visualization, meditation, and spiritual healing are types of Complementary and Alternative Medicines. Many people say that such approaches help them feel better. Talk to your healthcare professional before you start any of these to make sure they will not interfere with your treatment.
It is also important to maintain a healthy diet while undergoing treatment. Make sure you take in enough calories to maintain your weight and strength. This may not always be easy, because often patients feel uncomfortable, tired, or nauseous, or may have sores on the mouth. Meeting with a dietician may be helpful, as you can establish a healthy diet that will fit your needs and keep you as strong and healthy as possible until you get through your treatment.
Frequently asked questions
What is cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer is cancer in the cervix, the lower, narrow part of the uterus (womb). The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a baby grows during a pregnancy. The cervix forms a canal that opens into the vagina (birth canal), which leads to the outside of the body.
If a Pap test indicates serious changes in the cells of the cervix, the clinician will suggest further testing such as a coloscopy. In this procedure, the clinician uses a tool called a colposcope to see the cells of the vagina and cervix in detail.
If there are still some concerns of precancerous cells, the clinician may use the LUMA Cervical Imaging System. The clinician uses this device right after a colposcopy. This system, recently approved by the FDA, shines a light on the cervix and looks at how different areas of the cervix respond to this light. It gives a score to tiny areas of the cervix. It then makes a color map that helps the clinician decide where to further test the tissue with a biopsy. The colors and patterns on the map help the clinician tell between healthy tissue and tissue that might be diseased.
Why should I be concerned about cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer is a disease that can be very serious. However, it is a disease that you can help prevent. Cervical cancer occurs when normal cells in the cervix change into cancer cells. This normally takes several years to happen, but it can also happen in a very short period of time. The good news is that there are ways to help prevent cervical cancer. By getting regular Pap tests and pelvic exams, your healthcare provider can find and treat the changing cells before they turn into cancer.
What is the difference between precancerous conditions and cancer of the cervix?
Cells on the surface of the cervix sometimes appear abnormal but are not cancerous. Scientists believe that some abnormal changes in cells on the cervix are the first steps in a series of slow changes that can lead to cancer years later. That is, some abnormal changes are precancerous, and they may become cancerous with time.
Over the years, healthcare professionals have used different terms to refer to abnormal changes in the cells on the surface of the cervix. One term now used is squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL). (The word lesion refers to an area of abnormal tissue; intraepithelial means that the abnormal cells are present only in the surface layer of cells.) Changes in these cells can be divided into two categories:
Low-grade SIL (LGSIL) refers to early changes in the size, shape and number of cells that form the surface of the cervix. Some low-grade lesions go away on their own. However, with time, others may grow larger or become more abnormal, forming a high-grade lesion. Precancerous low-grade lesions also may be called mild dysplasia or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 1 (CIN 1).
High-grade SIL (HGSIL) means that the precancerous changes are more severe; they look very different from normal cells. Like low-grade SIL, these precancerous changes involve only cells on the surface of the cervix. The cells will not become cancerous and invade deeper layers of the cervix for many months, perhaps years. Nevertheless, HGSIL on a Pap smear may be associated with malignancy of the cervix. Therefore, a proper diagnostic evaluation is necessary. This usually begins with a colposcopic evaluation of the cervix. High-grade lesions also may be called moderate or severe dysplasia, CIN 2 or 3, or carcinoma in situ. They develop most often in women between the ages of 30 and 40, but can occur at other ages as well.
If abnormal cells spread deeper into the cervix or to other tissues or organs, the disease is then called cervical cancer, or invasive cervical cancer. The average age of cervical cancer patients is 50.
How can I detect cervical cancer early?
Most precancerous conditions of the cervix could be detected and treated before cancer develops if all women had pelvic exams and Pap tests regularly. This way, most invasive cancers could be prevented. Any invasive cancer that does occur would likely be found at an early, curable stage.
What is my healthcare professional checking when he/she does my pelvic exam?
In a pelvic exam, the clinician checks the uterus, vagina, ovaries, fallopian tubes, bladder, and rectum. The clinician feels these organs for any abnormality in their shape or size. A speculum is used to widen the vagina so that the clinician can see the upper part of the vagina and the cervix.
The Pap test is a simple test to detect abnormal cells in and around the cervix. A woman should have this test when she is not menstruating; the best time is between 10 and 20 days after the first day of her menstrual period. For about 2 days before a Pap test, she should avoid douching or using spermicidal foams, creams, jellies, or vaginal medicines (except as directed by a physician), which may wash away or hide any abnormal cells.
Those who are at increased risk of developing cancer of the cervix should be especially careful to follow their clinician's advice about checkups. Women who have had a hysterectomy (surgery to remove the uterus, including the cervix) should ask their healthcare professional's advice about having pelvic exams and Pap tests.
Is a second opinion important?
Before starting treatment, you may want another healthcare professional to review the diagnosis and another specialist to review the treatment plan. Some insurance companies require a second opinion; others may cover second opinion if the patient requests it.
A gynecologic oncologist is usually in the best position to offer a patient an expert opinion on the diagnosis and management of cervical cancer.
Glossary of cervical cancer terms
Abdomen: The belly, that part of the body that contains all of the structures between the chest and the pelvis. The abdomen is separated anatomically from the chest by the diaphragm, the powerful muscle spanning the body cavity below the lungs.
Abnormal: Not normal. Deviating from the usual structure, position, condition, or behavior. In referring to a growth, abnormal may mean that it is cancerous or premalignant (likely to become cancer).
Benign: Not cancer. The opposite of malignant.
Biopsy: The removal of a sample of tissue for purposes of diagnosis.
Cancer: An abnormal growth of cells which proliferates in an uncontrolled way.
Carcinoma: Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover body organs. For example, carcinoma can arise in the breast, colon, liver, lung, prostate, and stomach.
Catheter: A thin, flexible tube. For example, a catheter placed in a vein provides a pathway for giving drugs, nutrients, fluids, or blood products. Samples of blood can also be withdrawn through the catheter.
Cell: The basic structural and functional unit in people and all living things. Each cell is a small container of chemicals and water wrapped in a membrane.
Cervical cancer: Cancer of the entrance to the womb (uterus). The cervix is the lower, narrow part of the uterus (womb). The uterus, a hollow, pear-shaped organ, is located in a woman’s lower abdomen, between the bladder and the rectum. The cervix forms a canal that opens into the vagina, which leads to the outside of the body.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower, narrow part of the uterus (womb). The uterus, a hollow, pear-shaped organ, is located in a woman's lower abdomen, between the bladder and the rectum. The cervix forms a canal that opens into the vagina, which leads to the outside of the body.
Chemotherapy: 1. In the original sense, a chemical that binds to and specifically kills microbes or tumor cells. The term chemotherapy was coined in this regard by Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915).
2. In oncology, drug therapy for cancer. Also called "chemo" for short.
Clinical trials: Trials to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of medications or medical devices by monitoring their effects on large groups of people.
Colposcope: A lighted magnifying instrument used by a gynecologist to examine the tissues of the vagina and the cervix. The procedure is called colposcopy.
Colposcopy: A procedure in which a gynecologist uses a lighted magnifying instrument, called a colposcope, to examine the tissues of the vagina and the cervix.
Conization: Surgery to remove a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix and cervical canal. Conization may be used to diagnose or treat a cervical condition. Also called cone biopsy.
Curettage: The removal of growths or other material from the wall of a cavity or other surface, as with a curet. A curet, or curette, is a spoon-shaped instrument with a sharp edge. The word “curette” comes from French and means a scraper. The verb “curer” means to scrape or clean.
Cysts: Cysts are abnormal, closed sac-like structures within a tissue that contain a liquid, gaseous, or semisolid substance. Cysts can occur anywhere in the body and can vary in size. The outer, or capsular, portion of a cyst is termed the cyst wall.
Douching: Using water or a medicated solution to clean the vagina.
Dysplasia: Abnormal in form.
Endocervical curettage: The removal of tissue from the inside of the cervix using a spoon-shaped instrument called a curette.
External radiation therapy: Radiation therapy using a machine located outside the body to aim high-energy rays at a tumor.
Human papillomavirus (HPV): A family of over 100 viruses including those which cause warts and are transmitted by contact. Some types of HPV are associated with tumors of the genital tract including, notably, cancer of the cervix.
Hysterectomy: A surgical operation to remove the uterus and, sometimes, the cervix. Removal of the entire uterus and the cervix is referred to as a total hysterectomy. Removal of the body of the uterus without removing the cervix is referred to as a subtotal hysterectomy.
In situ: In the normal location. An “in situ” tumor is one that is confined to its site of origin and has not invaded neighboring tissue or spread elsewhere in the body.
Internal radiation therapy: Radiation therapy in which radioactive material is placed in or near a tumor.
Invasive cervical cancer: Cancer that has spread from the surface of the cervix to tissue deeper in the cervix or to other parts of the body.
Lesion: Almost any abnormality involving any tissue or organ due to any disease or any injury.
Lubricant: An oily or slippery substance. A vaginal lubricant may be helpful for women who feel pain during intercourse because of vaginal dryness.
Malignant: In regard to a tumor, having the properties of a malignancy that can invade and destroy nearby tissue and that may spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body.
Metastasis: The process by which cancer spreads from the place at which it first arose as a primary tumor to distant locations in the body.
Neoplasia: The process of abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells. The product of neoplasia is a neoplasm (a tumor).
Pap smear test: A screening test for abnormal cervical cells based on the examination under the microscope of cells collected from the cervix, smeared on a slide and specially stained to reveal premalignant (before cancer) and malignant (cancer) changes as well as changes due to noncancerous conditions such as inflammation from infections. Also called a Pap smear.
Pelvic exam: An examination of the organs of the female reproductive system.
Precancerous: Pertaining to something that is not yet overtly cancerous, but may become a cancer. Synonymous with premalignant.
Prognosis: 1. The expected course of a disease. 2. The patient’s chance of recovery.
Radiation: 1. Rays of energy. Gamma rays and X-rays are two of the types of energy waves often used in medicine. 2. The use of energy waves to diagnose or treat disease.
Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy rays to damage cancer cells, stopping them from growing and dividing. Like surgery, radiation therapy is a local treatment that affects cancer cells only in the treated area.
Squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL): A general term for the abnormal growth of squamous cells on the surface of the cervix. The changes in the cells are described as low grade or high grade, depending on how much of the cervix is affected and how abnormal the cells are.
Stage: As regards cancer, the extent of a cancer, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
Staging: In regard to cancer, the process of doing examinations and tests to learn the extent of the cancer, especially whether it has metastasized (spread) from its original site to other parts of the body.
Symptom: Any subjective evidence of disease. Anxiety, lower back pain, and fatigue are all symptoms. They are sensations only the patient can perceive. In contrast, a sign is objective evidence of disease. A bloody nose is a sign. It is evident to the patient, clinician, nurse and other observers.
Systemic: Affecting the entire body. A systemic disease such as diabetes can affect the whole body. Systemic chemotherapy employs drugs that travel through the bloodstream and reach and affect cells all over the body.
Therapy: The treatment of disease.
Tired: A feeling of a lessened capacity for work and reduced efficiency of accomplishment, usually accompanied by a sense of weariness and fatigue.
Tissue: A broad term that is applied to any group of cells that perform specific functions.
Tubes: The "tubes" are medically known as the Fallopian tubes. There are two Fallopian tubes, one on each side of th uterus, which transport the egg from the ovary to the uterus (the womb). The Fallopian tubes have small hair-like projections called cilia on the cells of the lining.
Tumor: An abnormal mass of tissue. Tumors are a classic sign of inflammation, and can be benign or malignant (cancerous). There are dozens of different types of tumors. Their names usually reflect the kind of tissue in which they arise, and may also tell you something about their shape or how they grow. For example, a medulloblastoma is a tumor that arises from embryonic cells (a blastoma) in the inner part of the brain (the medulla). Diagnosis depends on the type and location of the tumor. Tumor marker tests and imaging may be used; some tumors can be seen (for example, tumors on the exterior of the skin) or felt (palpated with the hands).
Uterus: The uterus (womb) is a hollow, pear-shaped organ located in a woman's lower abdomen between the bladder and the rectum. The narrow, lower portion of the uterus is the cervix; the broader, upper part is the corpus. The corpus is made up of two layers of tissue.
Vagina: The muscular canal extending from the cervix to the outside of the body. It is usually 6 to 7 inches in length, and its walls are lined with mucus membrane. It includes two vault-like structures, the anterior (front) vaginal fornix and the posterior (rear) vaginal fornix. The cervix protrudes slightly into the vagina, and it is through a tiny hole in the cervix (the os) that sperm make their way toward the internal reproductive organs. The vagina also includes numerous tiny glands that make vaginal secretions.
Vaginal discharge: Vaginal discharge is a fluid produced by glands in the vaginal wall and cervix that drains from the opening of the vagina. The amount and appearance of normal vaginal discharge varies throughout the menstrual cycle.
Virus: A microorganism smaller than a bacteria, which cannot grow or reproduce apart from a living cell. A virus invades living cells and uses their chemical machinery to keep itself alive and to replicate itself. It may reproduce with fidelity or with errors (mutations)—this ability to mutate is responsible for the ability of some viruses to change slightly in each infected person, making treatment more difficult.
Womb: The womb (uterus) is a hollow, pear-shaped organ located in a woman’s lower abdomen between the bladder and the rectum. The narrow, lower portion of the uterus is the cervix; the broader, upper part is the corpus.
Cervical cancer resources and tools
*Accepts Spanish calls
* National Women's Health Information Center, OWH, HHS
8270 Willow Oaks Corporate Drive
Fairfax, VA 22031
Phone: (800) 994-9662
TDD: (888) 220-5446
Fax: (703) 663-6942
http://www.4woman.gov
National Cancer Institute
National Institutes of Health
9000 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20892
Phone: (800) 422-6237
http://www.cancer.gov
Private Organizations
American Cancer Society
http://www.cancer.org
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) Resource
409 12th St, SW, PO Box 96920
Washington, DC 20090-6920
Phone: (202) 638-557
Phone: (800) 762-2264 x 192
(for publications requests only)
http://www.acog.org/
Population Council
One Dag Hammarskjold Plaza
New York, NY 10017
Phone: (212) 339 0500
Fax: (212) 755 6052
http://www.popcouncil.org/
Mayo Clinic
4500 San Pablo Road
Jacksonville, FL 32224
Phone: (904) 953-2000
http://www.mayoclinic.org
The National Women's Health Information Center
http://www.womenshealth.gov/newsletter
Tools
Feminist Women’s Health Center
Women's Health information fact sheets
http://www.fwhc.org/health/index.htm
Harvard School of Public Health
Assess your disease risk:
http://www.yourdiseaserisk.harvard.edu/hccpquiz.pl?lang=english&func=home&quiz=cervical
National Cancer Institute
Download “A Snapshot of Cervical Cancer” to see graphs and trends.
http://women.cancer.gov/research/cervical.shtml#statistics
Professional:
